CHAPTER THREE

THE COST OF THE MADNESS OF WAR

How do we try to make sense of man’s idea that war solves problems among nations? History shows repeatedly that ending a war is only a temporary cease-fire. Alliances change within a lifetime, enemies become friends, friends become enemies, and the violence continues. There have been only a few times when there was peace on earth. In fact, “peace” is a word that is rarely heard, but when used, it is a pejorative, such as “peace- nik.” However, supporters of wars are recognized as honored “patriots.”

The origin of war, is thought to have emerged from groups of nomadic hunters who at first relied upon each other for hunting and gathering, and then might have changed to aggression as climate, open land and prey changed. By the Paleolithic Age, about two million years ago, until about 13,000 B.C.E groups were hunting with spears and by the Neolithic period between 8,000 - 4,000 BCE. were using the bow and arrow.

The first recorded defensive fortifications were in Jericho in the Jordan Valley in 7,000 B.C.E. Between 3,500-3200 B.C.E Mesopotamia (Iraq) built walls around its cities. During 3,000 to 2000 BCE, farmers built ditches and walls around their cities in China and India to protect their land, and city-states were protecting their trade routes to the Arabian Gulf and the Mediterranean.

Weapons evolved to cross bows, battering rams, chariots, elephants, horses and body armor, daggers, rifles, machine guns, sailing ships, motorized vehicles, tanks and, aircraft, then nuclear weapons. Gas was used in WW 1 leaving veterans with permanent disability. In the late 1930s and early ‘40s, Hitler used gas to engineer the most atrocious genocide in history in the murder of 6,000,000 Jews and an additional 7,000,000 that he considered to be imperfect for his Aryan race. The Russian dictator Stalin murdered even more. Saddam Hussein used gas against the Kurds in Iraq in the recent past, and it is thought that many nations maintain reserves.

The history of constant war shows there were few permanent benefits for the population. For a limited time individual rulers gained more power, slaves and treasures, before they were retaken in ensuing wars. Everyone on both sides suffered the ravages of war. The killing and maiming not only of soldiers, but entire cities and villages were destroyed along with crops and livestock, causing disease and famine to continue for many years.

To contemplate the madness of war, a deep awareness of the history and outcome of war should be studied. Only then would enough people be activated to dedicate their lives to prevent this perpetual violence, no matter what degree of intelligence or abilities they can contribute.

The United Nations organization which was created for this purpose is instead the body whose wheels turn so slowly as to exacerbate the conflict. The strength of super-powers, national greed and accumulation of personal wealth of the leaders, rulers and politicians who are its members are perpetuated.

Where are the thinkers in these governmental bodies, or in academia to provide innovative concepts that will produce true peace-keepers?

Many looked on as anti-war demonstrators during the Vietnam War in 1960-70s were treated as unpatriotic, rabble-rousers by law enforcement agencies and National Guards throughout the United States. The song, “Give Peace a Chance” became a standard for the younger generation who no longer trusted anyone over 30, and especially governments. Adults finally caught on that they were right to demand peace and nonviolence which was achieved in 1973.

The following is an alphabetical list of the “famous” wars. Repetitive wars to take and retake ancient lands and empires are too numerous to report here. There were only a few times in history that there were brief periods of peace which will be seen in the final chapters.

Fig.3
Anglo-Boer War Indian Wars Russo-Turkish War
Arab-Israeli War* Iraq-Iran War* Seven Weeks War
Chinese-Japanese War Korean War* Spanish-American War
Civil War-America Mexican War Spanish Civil War
Cold War* Peasants' War Succession War
Crimean War Pelopennesian War Thirty Years War
Crusades Persian Gulf War 1991* Vietnam*
Franco-Prussian War Punic Wars War of 1812
French & Indian War Revolutionary War War of the Roses
Hundred Years War Russo-Japanese War World Wars I & !!
Fig.4 EARLIER WARS AND CAMPAIGNS

B.C.E.
2770-1700 Ionians invade Greek mainland and integrated with the population. Invasion of desert people in Egypt -Standisin, Elamite, Akkadian, Sumeria, Amorites,Hittites, Hykos, Sea People, Persia under Xerxes invaded Greece.

1490-1400 The Cretan supremacy ended. Tuthmosis III fought 17 campaigns against Syria and Palestine.

1365-1330 Assyrian rulers control Babylon

1309-1291 Sethos1 Fought the Hittites and left conclusion to his son Ramses II-1279

1213 Ramses ll spends the first ten years of his reign to conclude that war.

1200 Trojan War. Power falls to Phoenician traders.

1115 Greece and the Achaeans fall to uncivilized conquering hordes.

1077 Tilgath-Pileser l extends his rule through northern Syria to the trading lands of the Mediterranean and successors rule to 627 BC.

850-600 Sicily, Southern Italy, Black Sea dotted with Greek cities. Democracy places political power in the people. It survives in a few smaller cantons of Switzerland today. It is the Homeric period - the Iliad and the Odyssey about 800 B.C., religion is almost absent, hospitality is strong, with rare occurrences of human sacrifice of prisoners.

550-525 Cyrus the Great, Persia’s first great ruler invaded Egypt

539- 326 Wars continue. Xerxes invades Greece. Alexander the Great rules; Chandra Gupta of China has 600,000 infantrymen, 10,000 calvary, 9,000 elephants

A.D.
1000-1500 Chinese Predominance - establishing professional armies.

1453 - Siege of Constantinople

1588 - England and the Spanish Armada

1631 - Battle of Breitenfeld

1665-1700 Britain and other powers prevent Louis IV from placing Philip
of Argon on the Spanish throne.

1727 -Spanish forces attack Gibraltar

1730 Hapsburgs surrender control of Naples and Sicily to Don Carlos of Spain who later became king of Spain.

1735 France and Savoy against Italy

1739 - Britain declares war on Spain

1761 - Spain declares war on Britain

1762- Britain’s amphibious attack led to the occupation of Havana, “Key to the Caribbean”

1813 Napoleon - .Battle of Leipzig, 460,000 soldiers

And so it continued from 13,000 BCE with battles that have names, such as the Battle of Gettysburg, the Battle of the Bulge, Battle of Mulvern Hill, Battle of Gallipoli, Battle of Dien Bien Phu, Battle of Stalingrad, a total of some 170. Then there were some 35 sieges, among them, the Siege of Delhi, the Siege of Jerusalem, the Siege of Hsiang-yang. The Siege of Luxembourg, the Siege of Syracuse, the Siege of Tyre. The devastation of war in ancient times, pales in comparison to war from 1812 to the present time.

Fig.5 UNITED STATES AT WAR IN THE 19TH CENTURY
1812- Britain seized U.S. merchant ships off France. U.S. thought British in Canada were inciting Indian attacks on pioneers.
Outcome: Essentially a draw, No territorial gains by either side.
Cost:$90 million - $2.2 billion in 2002 currency.**
Start of War: June 18, 1812
End of War: Dec. 24, 1814
Troops deployed: 286,730
Casualties: 6,785

Mexican War - U.S. declared war to defend U.S. Annexation of Texas and establish the Rio Grande as its border. U.S. saw a chance to acquire California, Arizona, New Mexico, parts of Colorado, Utah, Nevada,
Outcome: Mexico surrendered. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo established the Rio Grande border and ceded 1.2 million square miles to the U.S. Cost: $70 million - $1.1 billion in 2002 currency.**
Start of War: May 13, 1846
End of War: February 2, 1848
Troops deployed: 78,435
Casualties: 17,435

American Civil War - Issue of slavery polarized the country along section lines. When Republican Party objected to slavery, 11 southern states seceded from the Union and formed the Confederacy.

Outcome: The end of hostilities and rebuilding of the south. Slavery ends. Not until 1963 did civil rights movements result in some legal rights for descendants of emancipated slaves. Many now serve in national, state and local governments, hold executive jobs in large corporations and the military, but poverty and racial discrimination continues.
Cost: $5.2 billion combined - $62 billion in 2002 currency**
Start of War: April 12, 1861
End of War: April 9, 1865
Union Troops deployed: 2,213,263
Casualties: 646,392
Confederate Troops deployed: 1,064,200
Casualties: 335,524

Spanish American War - Cuban rebels started fighting for their independence from Spain. The USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor killing 260 men on board. The US declared war on Spain.
Outcome: US and Spain signed a peace treaty granting Cuba its independence, surrendering Puerto Rico and Guam to America and allowing the US to purchase the Philippine Islands. America paid $20 million. Cost:$400 million - Over $9.6 billion in 2002 currency **
Start of war: April 19, 1898
End of War: December 10, 1898
Troops deployed: 306,760
Casualties: 4,108


Fig.6 UNITED STATES AT WAR IN THE 20th CENTURY

WORLD WAR 1 - England and France were at war with Germany since 1914. The U.S. did not intervene until German submarine attacked U.S. merchant ships. President Wilson concluded that a German victory would crush his dream of a peaceful international order.***
Outcome: Germany and its allies surrendered, signing the Treaty of Versailles. New nations were formed in Europe.
Cost: $16.8 billion. - $190.6 billion in 2002 currency**
Start of War: April 6, 1917
End of war: June 28, 1919
Troops deployed: 4,734,991
Casualties: 320,518

WORLD WAR II - Germany and Japanese aggression against their neighbors in Europe and Asia seen as a threat to United States security. US provided materials to Britain, but did not otherwise intervene until Japan attacked the US fleet in Pearl Harbor Hawaii.

Outcome: Russian army entered Berlin which was later divided into separate zones for America, Britain, France and Soviet Union. Hitler committed suicide. Japan surrendered days after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Political events led to the Russians blocking Berlin from U.S. Aid. President Truman ordered an airlift to provide food for Berliners. Marshall Plan - U.S. rebuilds Europe.
More people were killed in this war between 1937 and 1945 than ever before, and in all of the wars combined throughout the ages. The method of killing was the most atrocious, brutal and cruel ever devised by man. The appalling statistics reveal: most victims were civilians, at six million Jews in Hitler’s “final solution,” twenty million Russians (about half murdered by Stalin), 3 million Poles, 1.5 million Yugoslavians, 350,000 British, 200,000 Americans, missing and unidentified, for a total of some 40 million human beings.
Cost: $185.4 billion -$2.8 trillion in 2002 currency.*
Start of War: December 8, 1942
End of War: August 14, 1945
Troops deployed: 16,112,566
Casualties: 1,077,245
Non-violent Cold War U.S. and Western Europe against the spread of communism by the Soviet Union and in Asia. The Cold war ends in 1989 with the collapse of the Soviet Union, without armed conflict. Soviet Union divided into separate nations.

KOREAN WAR - Communist North Korea encouraged by the Soviet Union and China invaded democratic South Korea. United States persuaded the United Nations to send an international army.
Outcome: Cease fire brought a status quo - the demilitarized zone still follows the 38th parallel.
Cost:$54 billion - $335.9 billion in 2002 currency.**
Start of war: June 25, 1950.
End of war: July 27, 1963
Troops deployed: 5,720, 000
Casualties: 139,858

VIETNAM WAR -: U.S. believed in the so-called “domino theory” that if Vietnam came under the control of a communist government, communism would spread throughout Southeast Asia. Advisors were sent to help the South Vietnamese against the North in the late 50s-early 60s.
Outcome: College Students start protest, later joined by public against the war divided the country. Guerilla warfare was unfamiliar to American military. Paris Peace Accords signed and the U.S. withdrew, but continued to provide financial and military aid to South Vietnam. The North engulfed the South and remains in control to this day.
Cost: $111 billion - $494.3 billion in 2002 currency..**
Start of War: Mid-1960s in actual battle
End of War: January 27, 1973
Troops deployed: 8,744,000
Casualties: 211,512:

PERSIAN GULF WAR - Iraq invaded Kuwait and President George H.W. Bush relied on advisors Dick Cheney and Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld to minimize the number of troops needed to force Iraq to withdraw.
Outcome: Iraq withdraws, regime does not change..
Cost: $61 billion ($53 billion pledged by allies)
Start of War: January 17, 1991
End of War: February 28, 1991
Troops deployed: 697,000
Battlefield casualties: 148
Non-battlefield casualties: 145

TOTAL COST OF U.S. WARS IN 20TH CENTURY: $420.2 billion.
TOTAL COST OF U.S. WARS IN 2002 CURRENCY: $4.5 trillion (does not include Persian Gulf war or invasion of Iraq)


Fig.7 UNITED STATES AT WAR IN THE 21st CENTURY

IRAQ WAR - 2003 United States invades Iraq. Americans were lied to by the Bush administration, charging Iraq with hiding weapons of mass destruction. George W. Bush declared victory on May 3, 2003. However hostilities continue to this writing. Reasons given were changed to “bringing democracy to the Iraqi people” by the reasons for the action Commander-in-Chief. He admits “mistakes were made.”

Hostilities continue. American and coalition troops remain deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan. Sunni and Shi’a insurgents attack each other in Iraq.
Start of war: March 18, 2003,
Today is the fourth year anniversary of the war. No End of War is in sight despite new Democratic Party’s weak efforts to end the war. “New strategy” declared by George W. Bush increases number of U.S. Troops currently in Iraq by some 40,000.
Cost: $176 billion:
Cost to date (Spring, 2006): additional $310 billion; Bush requests additional $4 billion to continue.
Troops deployed: 160,000
Casualties: over 3,000 of March, 2007.
No figures available for civilian deaths and injuries. Commander-in-Chief Bush, thinks 30,000 "more or less."

If future historians are able to correctly determine the truth regarding the reasons the U.S. invaded Iraq, it will be more than U.S. citizens and the world who witnessed the event were allowed to learn from the Bush administration.

George W. Bush took office in January, 2001 as president, in accordance with the United States Supreme Court ruling* which did not permit a recount of votes in Florida. There were ballot errors and other election irregularities in the state where the president's brother is governor. Democratic candidate, former Vice President Al Gore received more votes. The damage done to the U.S. during the George W. Bush administration will be visible for many years to come when all of the facts come to light.

On September 11, 2001, nine months after Bush’s inauguration, al Qaeda terrorists using four hijacked commercial aircraft, attacked the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., two brought down the World Trade Center’s twin towers in New York, as stunned American watched on television. A fourth aircraft destined for the White House or the Capitol, crashed in the woods in Pennsylvania by heroic action of the passengers. They heard of the attacks on their cell phones while on the doomed plane, and knowing they would not survive in any case, rushed the hijackers, caused the plane to crash in a field in Shanksville, PA, and saved the nation’s capitol from further destruction. The cost in human lives was over 3,000.

George W. Bush sent forces to Afghanistan to find al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, declared “war on terrorism” to “bring him to justice.” Concentrated bombing of caves and other possible hideouts failed to capture or kill bin Laden. It is not clear as to when or if George W. Bush stopped seeking bin Laden, or how it came to pass that the Afghans and other coalition troops, including Iran, took over the task of seeking out and fighting the terrorists. There is no confirmation whether bin Laden is alive. As of July 24, 2006, the U.S. and British forces agreed to send 900 more troops to reinforce the 3,600 NATO troops in Afghanistan.

The Taliban who had supported bin Laden were supposedly defeated, and Afghanistan has become a democracy. The latest news is that the Taliban again started hostilities in southwest Afghanistan and is also moving into Pakistan which is not cooperating in seeking them out.

In a strange repetition of history, almost all of the staff in the administration of George H.W. Bush (referred to in the press as “41”) who declared war against Iraq in the Persian Gulf in 1991, are now in the Bush ‘43’ administration. Dick Cheney former Secretary of Defense, became Vice President in the current administration; Donald Rumsfeld became Secretary of Defense and both now conduct this current war. General Colin Powell, head of the military for Bush-41, became Secretary of State and Condoleeza Rice was appointed National Security Advisor under the younger Bush. She was promoted to Secretary of State upon Colin Powell’s resignation. After the November 6, 2006 election disastrous to Republicans, Donald Rumsfeld was asked to step down. He has been replaced by Robert Gates, former CIA boss also in the Bush-41 administration.

Among many questions; why was National Security Advisor, Ms. Rice rewarded for her failure to know conditions leading up to the September 11 attack? Why was she not aware of the truth about weapons of mass destruction? She was briefed about the Osama bin Laden threat, but claimed the Clinton administration did not leave plans as to how to deal with it. This was untrue, as reported in Richard Clarke’s book Against All Enemies. According to a documentary on ABC-TV September 11, 2006 she restructured security advisor Richard Clarke's job when he was zeroing in on the location of bin Laden. The film raised many questions and suspicions as to the handling of the investigation of Osama bin Laden which could have prevented the tragedy of 9/11/01.

Instead of focusing on destroying al Qaeda, President Bush decided to invade Iraq. It was the first time in American history that the United States was the aggressor against a foreign nation. Americans and the world ask why was Bush in such a hurry to wage war, and why he disdained diplomacy and the United Nations efforts to do its job in keeping the peace?

The reason for the attack has become so convoluted that the American public, Congress and possibly the president and his staff do not understand or cannot explain it. At first we were told that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction despite the United Nations report that concluded there were none.

After Bush declared victory in Iraq, the Central Intelligence Agency admitted that the information regarding weapons of mass destruction was wrong. It is not clear if that was when the president changed the reason for invading Iraq was because Saddam Hussein supported Osama bin Laden's attack on the U.S. When there was no proof of that action and the truth emerged, the president decided the real reason for the invasion was to "bring democracy to the Iraqi people and to the middle east."

However, Americans should be questioning the legality of his action. The Constitution clearly states that the president must defend the United States, but there is no provision that the president or Congress has the power or duty to bring democracy to the world.

Hussein was deposed, escaped the United States army and coalition troops. He was found cowering in a hole near his home, and was taken prisoner. After two years of preparation, his trial was underway, fraught with his bizarre behavior in disrespecting the judicial process He still believes he is the legitimate leader of Iraq. Lawyers have been murdered, judges threatened and Hussein shouts out his displeasure in the courtroom. He was sentenced to death by hanging in early November 2006.

Elections were held in early in 2006. Iraqis voted for a democratic government, then decided the prime minister wasn’t acceptable and a new prime minister was appointed to serve until 2010. On May 20, 2006, several key positions were filled to complete the governing body.

In the meantime, the U.S. has been training Iraqis to handle their own security. When they are ready to take over, the U.S. will withdraw its troops. With its own democratic government, there does not yet seem to be any improvement in the possibility that peace will 'break out.' Every day, insurgents kill American troops and Iraqis with home-made explosives strapped to the bodies of suicide bombers or hidden along roads to detonate when military convoys pass, at Mosques, markets, and police stations. The question as to whether or not a civil war is in progress has two answers. An Iraqi spokesman says the Sunnis and Shi’as, long-time enemies are at war, while George W. Bush says there is no civil war.

In a World Economic Forum in Savo, Switzerland on January 26, 2006, newly elected Iraqi leaders said they would “negotiate with the U.S to withdraw coalition forces, when their government is in place and when they have built their own security.” They also said they would need support with a financial program similar to the Marshall-Plan after WWII to repair infrastructure destroyed by U.S. bombing.
President Bush often reminds us that Iraqis are grateful for their freedom. Has there been a declaration by the new Iraqi government that verifies this assumption? There is no mention as to the status of women who do not seem to be included in the government. We know little about how the country is being rebuilt after relentless bombing at the start of the war, nor is there any information as to oil production and whether profits will contribute to the cost of restructuring Iraq. There is little reporting as to how to resolve the age-old enmity between Sunnis and Shi’as will be seen in Chapter - Religion.

The startling disclosure in former President Bill Clinton’s book, My Life, revealed that before his inauguration and before the September 11, 2001 attack, Bush told Clinton in the traditional visit of the president elect (in this case appointed) with a sitting president, that his second priority was Iraq (the first was missile defense). Clinton did not tell the American public that his response was that Iraq should be the last of some ten priorities. He apparently did not tell his wife, Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton either, for if he did, why would she have voted along with other Democrats to declare the war that Bush wanted?

If it was because of a sense of tradition that Clinton did not divulge their conversation, it is a deplorable, misguided decision for a nonessential custom which has caused death and injury to thousands of troops and Iraqi civilians.

Moreover, it is evident that it was not “weapons of mass destruction” or “to bring the terrorists to justice,” but for some unknown purpose. Americans and people in other nations have guessed the real reason was to enrich the Bush family’s connection with oil producing middle-east regimes. As evidence, on May 11, 2006, a bill was passed in the Senate that gave $7 billion in permanent tax cuts to the oil companies. President Bush had warned he would veto a tax bill if it did not contain the cut for oil companies.* This is astonishing as gas prices have soared in the past few months. Exxon-Mobil had a $36 billion record-high profit in 2005, which is even higher in the first quarter of 2006, while Exxon’s CEO received a bonus-retirement package of $400 million.

It is unforgivable that members of Congress have failed in their oath and duty to uphold the Constitution of the United States. Nowhere in the Constitution of the United States, does it give the duty and the power to the president or Congress to bring democracy to the world. They should not have declared war, nor should they have neglected their duty as the law-making branch to balance the power of the Executive branch, in this case to curb the senseless decisions of the Bush presidency.

It would be interesting if someone would bring a case against both the Executive and Legislative branches for unlawfully declaring war against a nation that did not have the capability of attacking the United States, and for causing a war to change their government to a democracy. However, with the recent partisan Supreme Court appointments by the Bush administration, it is unlikely that justice would be done.

After the September 11 attack, the world expressed sympathy for the devastation suffered by the U.S. Unfortunately, this support has turned to hatred. In Bush's 2002 State of the Union speech he mentioned Saddam Hussein eleven times and bin Laden not at all. The arrogance of "shock and awe" in war and America's plan to transform the entire Middle East caused fear among our friends. The seventy-five percent favorable attitude towards the U.S was eighty-three percent negative in 2003. Pakistan's backing for the U.S. war dropped to sixteen percent, twelve percent in Jordan, seventeen percent in Turkey and thirty-two percent in Lebanon. It is reported that al Qaeda has moved its headquarters to Pakistan from Afghanistan.

Another unresolved conflict is whether or not Iraq and Iran who share a 100,000 kilometer border, and were at war at the end of the 20th century can form an alliance. On September 12, 2006, Iraq and Iran leaders met. Secretary of State Condoleeza Rice expects Iraq will express support of the U.S. Iran urged the need to join forces for the future as they will be in the region longer than the U.S. Another meeting is scheduled November 26, 2006.

Therefore, everything that can be done, must be tried to remove the leaders who are threatening the survival of the planet.
The total cost of wars for the United States from the war of 1812 to the current Iraq war is 3 trillion, three-hundred and twenty seven billion, 600 million dollars. ($3,327,600,000,000.)

The total cost of all other wars, battles and sieges cannot be calculated without records. Under-reported wars, such as the 14-year civil war in Liberia ended in 2003, with no reports of the cost of loss of property, crops, homes, schools, buildings, infrastructure that have always been destroyed in war. It is far beyond cogent reason that war has been tolerated these thousands of years.

Nor can we measure the suffering of soldiers through the ages not only from combat wounds, but from malnutrition, contaminated food and water, infectious diseases, filthy hospitals, fatal insect bites, dysentery, lack of medicine, sleep deprivation, traumatic disorders, every discomfort that can be brought to battlefields, and atrocities suffered as prisoners of war.

It is governments that make the decision to go to war, sometimes with little provocation, and without the consent of the people. The solution to permanently end violence depends on removal of governments as we know them. We must have a new system of education and renewal of principles and behavior, so that mankind will no longer need to be represented by politicians, or divided by religions in support of “Just” Wars and who mandate rituals that have little to do with the spirituality within us.

President Bush declared victory with a huge banner “MISSION ACCOMPLISHED” unfurled on the fo’castle of an aircraft carrier in May, 2003, 8 weeks after the invasion. The fighting has not stopped, and in fact has been increased by Muslim insurgents. Everyday, American troops and an untold number of civilians are killed by home-made bombs. Americans are calling for all troops to return home.

The president’s approval rating is down to thirty percent, and his own party, who so solidly supported all of his disastrous decisions, are backing away now, in order to save their jobs. The November, 2006 elections was a strong statement by the people that they no longer support the war in Iraq. Americans express the same concern for loss of freedoms in the security measures he has pushed through Congress in his “war on terrorism.”

If funds applied to war in the 19th, 20th and 21st century, had instead been applied to peace, all of the basic needs of all of the people on the planet could have been met. Interrupt your reading here and THINK about the awesome possibility of just such a goal.

The following chapter questions the necessity for governments as we know them, that spread hatred, violence and distrust throughout the world and how vacillating alliances support violence. Recently, Iran was in the U.S. coalition in its "war on terrorism." There is a logical and organized way to replace them with wiser, more efficient, honest, productive and creative management by global peace-makers.